Archives September 2025

Fuel plays a crucial role in industry, transportation, and households. However, before it’s ready to use, it must go through a long and complex process at a facility known as a refinery.

Curious about how it works and what products are produced besides fuel? Let’s dive in.

What Is a Refinery?

A refinery is a facility that processes crude oil into various ready-to-use products with higher commercial value.

Crude oil pumped directly from the ground cannot be used as-is. It needs to undergo separation, purification, and hydrocarbon molecule modification.

The main function of a refinery is to act as the “heart” of the energy industry, ensuring a stable supply of fuel for transportation, industry, and households.

Over time, refineries have evolved from simple distillation units to complex modern facilities. While early refineries focused on producing kerosene, modern technology allows refineries to process crude oil more efficiently and produce a wide variety of products.

Read More: The Benefits of Alternative Energy Over Fossil Fuels

How Does the Crude Oil Refining Process Work?

Before it can be used, crude oil must go through a series of long and complex processes to produce various products. Here are the main stages:

Fractional Distillation

Distillation separates heavy fractions, such as lubricating oil. These heavy fractions have very high boiling points at atmospheric pressure, usually around 375–400°C, meaning direct heating can damage hydrocarbon molecules.

To prevent this, distillation is carried out under reduced pressure using a vacuum pump. Lowering the pressure also lowers the boiling point, allowing heavy fractions to vaporize and separate without reaching excessively high temperatures.

This process produces products that cannot be obtained through atmospheric distillation, such as lubricants, waxes, and residues, which are then further processed into high-value products like engine oil, grease, and petrochemical feedstock.

Read More: 7 Impacts of Deforestation That Threaten Our Future

Crude Oil Conversion

Conversion processes aim to transform heavy oil fractions into lighter, higher-value products, such as gasoline. There are three main techniques at this stage:

• Cracking
• Reforming
• Alkylation

Cracking breaks large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones. It can be done thermally (using high heat and pressure) or catalytically (using catalysts to lower the temperature and improve selectivity).

Reforming converts straight-chain naphtha (paraffins) into branched molecules (isoparaffins) and aromatic compounds. This increases the octane value of gasoline without changing the carbon chain length.

Alkylation combines light hydrocarbons, such as isobutane and butylene, into larger isoparaffin molecules. Alkylation products have very high octane values and are essential components in gasoline blends.

Treating (Purification)

Treating removes unwanted impurities from oil fractions to improve the final product quality and ensure fuels or petrochemicals are safe to use.

This process eliminates compounds that can reduce product performance or cause problems, such as unpleasant odors, sludge, metals, and polyaromatic compounds.

Read More: 5 Industries That Have Moved On to LNG

Blending and Storage

Blending is the final stage of oil processing, where products from distillation, conversion, and purification are mixed in precise proportions.

The goal is to produce final products like gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel that meet strict quality specifications, including octane rating, cetane number, vapor pressure, and viscosity.

Modern additives such as MTBE, ETBE, or alcohol are used to boost gasoline octane.

After blending, the final products are stored in large tanks designed to maintain quality and prevent contamination. From there, fuels are distributed by tanker trucks, trains, or ships to depots, filling stations, or directly to industries.

Read More: 5 Ways to Tackle Global Warming and Save the Planet’s Future

What Products Are Produced by a Refinery?

Refinery products are divided into two main categories: transportation fuels and non-fuel products.

Transportation Fuels

The main products of a refinery include:

• Gasoline: For motor vehicles, with quality measured by octane rating.
• Diesel: For trucks, buses, and heavy machinery, measured by cetane number.
• Jet fuel (aviation turbine fuel): High-performance fuel meeting strict safety standards.

Non-Fuel Products

Refineries also produce various non-fuel products essential for industry, such as:

• LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas): Used for household cooking gas and industrial purposes.
• Asphalt: Used as a binder in road construction and roofing.
• Petrochemical feedstocks: Naphtha is converted into ethylene, propylene, and benzene, which serve as raw materials for plastics, synthetic fibers, detergents, and fertilizers.

Read More: Is Transportation Truly the Biggest Energy Consumer?

Refinery vs. Natural Gas Processing

Refineries process crude oil into ready-to-use products like gasoline, diesel, asphalt, and LPG. The main process is fractional distillation, followed by conversion and treating to improve product quality.

Natural gas processing purifies raw natural gas by removing impurities and non-methane hydrocarbons. The purified gas can be distributed via pipelines or liquefied into LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) using cryogenic technology at around -162°C for easier transport.

The key difference lies in purpose and products. Refineries break down heavy crude molecules to produce fuels and petrochemicals. Meanwhile, gas processing purifies natural gas by removing impurities, enabling the production of LNG through a subsequent stage of cooling or liquefaction.

From a clean energy and environmental perspective, LNG is considered more eco-friendly than refinery fuels. It produces lower carbon emissions when burned and fewer pollutants, making it a better option in the transition toward cleaner energy.

References:

• API. Accessed 2025. Refinery Processes
• EIA. Accessed 2025. Oil and Petroleum Products Explained

Indonesia is blessed with an abundant water energy potential. From powerful river currents to vast oceans, all hold tremendous power waiting to be harnessed.

But can this potential really become a reliable energy source for the future? Let’s take a closer look at the opportunities and challenges ahead.

What is Hydropower?

Hydropower is one of the oldest and most reliable renewable energy sources known to humans. It utilizes the power of moving water, whether from rivers, waterfalls, or ocean waves, and converts it into electricity.

To generate electricity, water’s kinetic or potential energy is first transformed into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy.

The amount of rainfall flowing into rivers in a given area largely determines the availability of water for power generation. That’s why seasonal changes and rainfall patterns play a critical role in hydropower production.

Read More: The Difference Between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

How Does Hydropower Generate Electricity?

Converting flowing water into electricity involves an energy conversion process and several key components that enable this principle to function.

The Basic Principle of Energy Conversion

A Hydroelectric Power Plant works by converting potential energy (from water at height) and kinetic energy (from flowing water) into electrical energy. The greater the height difference and the higher the water flow rate, the more power is generated.

The process begins when water from a reservoir flows through a high-pressure pipeline called a penstock. The water flow spins a turbine, which converts the water’s energy into mechanical energy.

The turbine is connected to a generator, which then converts mechanical energy into electricity. Finally, the electricity is distributed through power grids for use.

Main Components of a Hydroelectric Plant

A typical hydropower plant consists of several key components:

• Dam and Reservoir: To store water and regulate a steady supply.
• Penstock (Pressure Pipe): Channels high-pressure water to the turbine.
• Turbine: Converts water energy into mechanical energy by spinning.
• Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Tailrace: Returns water to the river after passing through the turbine.

With these components working together, water energy can be harnessed efficiently to produce electricity.

Read More: 7 Impacts of Deforestation That Threaten Us All

Different Ways to Harness Water Energy

According to data from the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources in 2023, hydropower in Indonesia has been utilized through Large-Scale Hydropower Plants and Micro-Hydropower Plants.

In addition, Indonesia still holds significant potential to develop other forms of water-based energy, such as Tidal Power Plants.

Hydropower Plants

Large-scale Hydropower Plant facilities use dams to create reservoirs that store large volumes of water. This water is then channeled through turbines to generate electricity.

A Hydropower Plant is well-suited for supplying energy to urban areas and industrial zones due to its high capacity.

Micro-Hydropower Plants

Micro-Hydropower Plants operate on a smaller scale than Hydropower Plant, typically without large dams. These systems utilize river flows or irrigation channels to drive mini turbines.

This technology is ideal for remote areas not yet connected to the national electricity grid. In addition to being relatively low-cost and environmentally friendly, Micro-Hydropower Plants offer a sustainable, self-sufficient energy solution for villages or small communities.

Tidal Power Plants

Tidal energy harnesses the movement of seawater caused by tidal cycles. Tidal Power Plants are generally built in bays or estuaries with specialized structures that direct seawater through turbines.

Its advantage lies in the regular and predictable tidal patterns, which enable stable energy production. However, this technology remains relatively expensive and is only effective in regions with significant tidal range.

Read More: Is Biogas Truly Eco-Friendly or a New Challenge?

Challenges in Implementing Hydropower

Although hydropower is clean and sustainable, its implementation faces several major challenges.

Large-scale hydropower projects often disrupt river ecosystems by altering water flows, damaging aquatic habitats, and degrading downstream land quality.

In some cases, they can lead to community displacement, affecting local social structures and cultural heritage.

Additionally, initial investment costs are extremely high, and construction can take years to complete.

A water-based power supply is also highly dependent on the climate. Droughts can reduce reservoir levels, limiting electricity production.

This dependency makes hydropower less flexible in responding to fluctuations in energy demand.

Read More: Is Transportation Really the Most Energy-Consuming Sector? Here’s the Truth

LNG as a Solution to Hydropower’s Limitations

Hydropower is a clean renewable energy source, but its reliance on rainfall and river flow poses challenges, especially during dry seasons when generation capacity drops. This is where a stable backup energy source becomes crucial.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) serves as a transitional solution to maintain energy reliability while complementing renewables.

LNG is natural gas cooled to about -162°C to convert it into liquid form, making it easier to transport and store in large quantities.

With well-established infrastructure, LNG can be distributed to various regions, including those hard to reach by other energy networks. Its key advantages include:

• Stable supply
• Flexible distribution
• Lower emissions compared to coal

LNG isn’t just an alternative, it’s a strategic solution for a cleaner, more stable, and efficient energy future.

References:

• EIA. Accessed in 2025. Hydropower Explained
• US Department of Energy. Accessed in 2025. How Hydropower Works
• US Department of Energy. Accessed in 2025. Addressing Energy-Water Challenges
• Kementerian ESDM. Accessed in 2025. Percepat Upaya Transisi Energi, Menteri ESDM Dorong Pemanfaatan Tenaga Hidro

Cryogenic tanks play a vital role in the LNG supply chain. Beyond ensuring smooth distribution, this technology keeps LNG in its liquid state, enabling it to be transported over thousands of kilometers.

That’s why these tanks are a key pillar of global energy security. Curious why their role is so crucial? Let’s dive in.

What Is a Cryogenic Tank?

A cryogenic tank is a specialized container designed to store and transport materials at extremely low temperatures, typically below −150°C (−238°F).

At such frigid temperatures, gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon, helium, or LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) remain in liquid form, drastically reducing their volume and making them easier to transport.

The liquefaction process doesn’t happen inside the tank. It’s done in dedicated liquefaction facilities. Once the gas has been converted into a liquid, the cryogenic tank’s job is to maintain the correct temperature and pressure so it doesn’t revert to gas.

To withstand such extreme conditions, the tank walls are made from low-temperature-resistant materials such as stainless steel, 9% nickel steel alloy, or aluminum alloy, combined with advanced thermal insulation layers.

This design prevents external heat from entering and keeps cryogenic liquids stable during both storage and transport.

Read More: The Potential of LNG as Train Fuel: Is It More Efficient?

How Do Cryogenic Tanks Work?

Cryogenic tanks store liquids at extremely low temperatures to keep them in liquid form. For example, liquid nitrogen, liquid oxygen, liquid argon, liquid helium, or LNG are stored between −150°C and −269°C, depending on the substance.

Storing these gases as liquids is far more efficient than in gaseous form, as the volume can shrink hundreds of times.

The key to a cryogenic tank’s function is minimizing heat ingress and controlling internal pressure.

That’s why most tanks feature a double-wall design consisting of:

• Inner wall
• Outer wall
• Vacuum space

The inner wall, which is in direct contact with the cryogenic liquid, is made from low-temperature-resistant materials, typically nickel steel or aluminum alloy.

The outer wall provides mechanical protection against impacts and weather.

The space between the walls is vacuum-sealed and often filled with insulating materials like perlite or multi-layer insulation. This vacuum space blocks heat transfer through conduction and convection.

With proper insulation, cryogenic liquids can remain stable for months with a very low boil-off rate. This ensures the gas doesn’t evaporate before it’s needed for use in medical, energy, or research industries.

Read More: 7 Organic Wastes That Produce Energy

The Key Roles of Cryogenic Tanks in LNG

Cryogenic tanks are critical components in the LNG supply chain, not just to keep LNG cold and liquid, but also to ensure it’s stored and transported safely.

LNG Storage

Cryogenic tanks are designed to keep LNG at around −162°C. Liquefying LNG reduces its volume to about 1/600 of its original gaseous volume, making it far more efficient to store in large quantities.

Large-capacity LNG storage tanks are typically used at liquefaction plants and receiving terminals. They maintain low boil-off rates so LNG can be stored for weeks or even months, ready to meet industrial or power generation needs whenever required.

Read More: The Truth Behind Biogas: Sustainable Energy or Hidden Risk?

LNG Transportation

Cryogenic tanks are essential for transporting LNG both on land and at sea. Cryogenic tank trucks handle short- to medium-distance deliveries, while LNG carriers transport hundreds of thousands of cubic meters across international waters.

These tanks are built from materials that can withstand extreme cold, minimizing natural boil-off during transit so that LNG arrives at its destination in optimal volume.

LNG Distribution and Terminals

At LNG receiving terminals, cryogenic tanks act as buffers between incoming shipments and end-user demand.

After LNG is unloaded from a ship, it’s stored in massive cryogenic tanks with capacities in the hundreds of thousands of cubic meters. From there, LNG is pumped to regasification facilities where it’s warmed back into gaseous form before being fed into pipeline networks.

LNG terminals equipped with cryogenic tanks serve as vital nodes in the global energy supply chain by:

• Ensuring a stable supply despite demand fluctuations or shipment schedules
• Enabling LNG imports for countries without natural gas reserves
• Supporting energy diversification and boosting national energy security

In addition to onshore terminals, there are also Floating Storage Regasification Units (FSRUs), which serve as offshore floating terminals.

Read More: 5 Unique Advantages of Solar Energy Over Fossil Fuels

Types of Cryogenic Tanks for LNG

LNG cryogenic tanks are generally categorized by their load-bearing structure and installation method. Common types include:

Single Containment Tank (SCT)

The most common type is due to its lower cost and faster construction time. It has an inner nickel-alloy wall to handle cryogenic temperatures and an outer carbon steel wall to contain low-pressure vapor.

However, SCTs lack a secondary internal barrier, so leaks could release vapor directly into the environment.

Read More: Renewable vs Non-Renewable Energy: Here’s the Real Difference!

Double Containment Tank (DCT)

An SCT upgrade, the DCT has an additional outer wall (without a roof) to contain LNG spills. This design provides better protection and greater resilience to external hazards.

Full Containment Tank (FCT)

The safest LNG tank design, both the outer wall and roof can contain spills and gas vapor. The downside: it’s the most expensive and time-consuming to build.

Read More: The Pros and Cons of Using Coal for Energy

Above-Ground & In-Ground Tanks

Above-ground tanks are constructed above the surface and are the most common choice due to their simpler construction and relatively lower building costs.

This type is widely used in large-scale LNG facilities such as:

• Qatar LNG Plant (Ras Laffan)
• Gorgon LNG Project (Australia)
• Sabine Pass LNG Terminal (United States)

In contrast, in-ground tanks are embedded below the surface and equipped with three protective layers to withstand pressure, extreme temperatures, and shock.

This design offers enhanced protection against earthquakes and potential external threats, making it suitable for disaster-prone regions. Examples of implementation include:

• Tokyo Gas LNG Terminal (Japan)
• KOGAS LNG Terminal (South Korea)
• Taiwan LNG Terminal (Taichung)

Cryogenic tanks are more than just containers. They’re the backbone that keeps LNG safe, mobile, and ready for use at any time.

This technology ensures uninterrupted energy flow, strengthening energy security while enabling a more reliable global energy trade.

References:

• BCGA. Accessed 2025. Cryogenic Tanks
• Sngastank. Accessed 2025. How Cryogenic Storage Tanks Work